--- title: Cuba under Fidel and Raúl Castro and their successors url: https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/ description: Since 1 January 1959 the Cuban state has been governed by Fidel Castro and the movement he led, from 1965 as a one-party state under the Communist Party… section: FRAME --- ![Illustration: a Cold War intelligence-dossier collage dominated by a distressed world map with connecting routes, coordinates and highlighted regions.](https://propagandaarchive.org/static/generated/detail/hero-map-heavy.jpg) [Regimes](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/) # Cuba under Fidel and Raúl Castro and their successors At a glance The Cuban state governed since 1 January 1959 by Fidel Castro and the movement he led, from 1965 as a one-party state under the Communist Party of Cuba, then under Raúl Castro from 2008 and Miguel Díaz-Canel from 2018; it has not ended, and this page gives the roster as of 2 October 2026 and sets the United States broadcasts to Cuba beside Cuba's own media under the same definitions. - **Period:** 1959 to present - **Country:** Cuba - **Leader:** [Fidel Castro](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#fidel-castro) - **People listed:** 12 - **As of:** October 2, 2026 - **Techniques:** [Identity fusion](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/identity-fusion/) [Card stacking](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/card-stacking/) [Name-calling](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/name-calling/) [Euphemism / doublespeak](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/euphemism/) [Transfer](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/transfer/) [Narrative laundering](https://propagandaarchive.org/techniques/narrative-laundering/) [View all 4 propaganda objects from this regime](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/#regime=fidel-castro-government&leader=fidel-castro,raul-castro,miguel-diaz-canel) On this page - [The leader and the people under the leader](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#the-leader-and-the-people-under-the-leader) - [Background and rise to power](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#background-and-rise-to-power) - [How power was organized](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#how-power-was-organized) - [The propaganda apparatus](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#the-propaganda-apparatus) - [Timeline](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#timeline) - [Current status (as of October 2, 2026)](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#current-status-as-of-2026-10-02) - [Same-standard note](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#same-standard-note) - [Sources](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#sources) - [In the archive](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/castro-cuba/#in-the-archive) **In one line:** Since 1 January 1959 the Cuban state has been governed by Fidel Castro and the movement he led, from 1965 as a one-party state under the Communist Party of Cuba, in which Human Rights Watch documents the imprisonment of political opponents, with Raúl Castro succeeding him as head of government in 2008 and Miguel Díaz-Canel from 2018; its fundamental media are state property, it built an international news-agency, radio, film and poster apparatus, it has been the target of United States broadcasting since 1960, and as of 2 October 2026 it has not ended. ## The leader and the people under the leader Roster as of October 2, 2026. Offices and office-holders change; this page is a dated snapshot. - ![Fidel Castro at a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly in New York, 22 September 1960](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/castro-cuba/fidel-castro.jpg) — [Photo](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg): Warren K. Leffler, Public domain (U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, Library of Congress; copyright dedicated to the public on donation; Commons tag) — Fidel Castro — Prime Minister; later President of the Councils of State and of Ministers and First Secretary of the Communist Party · 1959 to 2008 — Fidel Castro: Read more — Led the 26th of July Movement, became prime minister on 16 February 1959, led the party from its founding in 1965 as First Secretary, was President of the Council of State from December 1976, handed power provisionally to his brother on 31 July 2006, left the presidency on 24 February 2008, left the party post in April 2011 and died on 25 November 2016. — In their words — > “This means that within the Revolution, everything; against the Revolution, nothing. Against the Revolution nothing, because the Revolution has its rights too; and the first right of the Revolution is the right to exist.” > > Speech closing the meetings with Cuban writers and artists at the National Library, Havana, 30 June 1961 ("Palabras a los intelectuales"), official text, Council of State of Cuba. English is FRAME's own translation. [source](http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/1961/esp/f300661e.html) — > “We are going to set up, in the face of imperialism's campaigns of aggression, a system of collective revolutionary vigilance, so that everyone knows who lives on the block, what the person who lives on the block does, and what relations he had with the tyranny; and what he does for a living; whom he associates with; what activities he is involved in.” > > Speech in front of the Presidential Palace on returning from the United Nations, Havana, 28 September 1960, stenographic version published by Cubadebate, 28 September 2025. English is FRAME's own translation. [source](http://www.cubadebate.cu/especiales/2025/09/28/fidel-el-arte-de-la-palabra-vamos-a-establecer-un-sistema-de-vigilancia-revolucionaria-colectiva/) — > “Never has a lawyer had to practice his profession under such difficult conditions; never has such a number of overwhelming irregularities been committed against an accused man.” > > History Will Absolve Me (La historia me absolverá), defence speech at the Moncada trial, Santiago de Cuba, 16 October 1953, in Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, Havana, 1975 [source](https://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1953/10/16.htm) — > “He who speaks to you hates vanity with all his being, nor are his temperament or frame of mind inclined towards courtroom poses or sensationalism of any kind.” > > History Will Absolve Me (La historia me absolverá), defence speech at the Moncada trial, Santiago de Cuba, 16 October 1953, in Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, Havana, 1975 [source](https://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1953/10/16.htm) — [All 2 quotes from Fidel Castro](https://propagandaarchive.org/quotes/fidel-castro/) — In the archive: [History will absolve me: the 26th of July Movement and Batista's press, 1953–1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-26-july-rise-1953-1959/), [A committee on every block: Cuba's Committees for the Defense of the Revolution](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-cdr/) ### Leaders - ![Raúl Castro in a dark suit, seated and gesturing, at a meeting in Moscow on 11 July 2012](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/castro-cuba/raul-castro.jpg) — [Photo](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ra%C3%BAl_Castro,_July_2012.jpeg): Government of the Russian Federation (government.ru), CC BY 4.0 — Raúl Castro — Minister of the Revolutionary Armed Forces; President of the Councils of State and of Ministers; First Secretary of the Communist Party · 1959 to 2021 — Raúl Castro: Read more — Brother of Fidel Castro; Minister of the Revolutionary Armed Forces from 1959 to 2008 and Second Secretary of the party from 1965, acting head of state from 31 July 2006, President of the Councils of State and of Ministers from 24 February 2008 to 19 April 2018 and First Secretary from April 2011 to 19 April 2021. — In their words — > “On this front it is also necessary to leave behind, for good, the habit of triumphalism, stridency and formalism in treating national current affairs, and to produce written materials and television and radio programmes that by their content and style capture attention and stimulate debate in public opinion.” > > Central Report to the Sixth Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba, Havana, 16 April 2011, passage on the Cuban press, official text, Council of State of Cuba. English is FRAME's own translation. [source](http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/rauldiscursos/2011/esp/r160411e.html) ### State and party - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: [source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ernesto_(che)_Guevara_(1961).tif), a 1961 press photograph from the Brazilian National Archives tagged with that archive's own public-domain licence template, not used because the template's legal basis was not verified; Alberto Korda's photograph of 5 March 1960 is not under a free licence and is only linked to, not hosted. — Ernesto "Che" Guevara — Minister of Industries; sponsor of Radio Rebelde and Prensa Latina · 1961 to 1965 — Ernesto "Che" Guevara: Read more — Argentine-born doctor and guerrilla commander who set up Radio Rebelde in the Sierra Maestra in 1958, is named in Prensa Latina's own history as a sponsor of the agency, was Minister of Industries from 1961 to 1965, left Cuba in 1965 and was killed in Bolivia on 9 October 1967; the Message to the Tricontinental under his name was published by OSPAAAL on 16 April 1967. — In their words — > “Regarding our great strategic objective, the total destruction of imperialism by armed struggle, we should be uncompromising.” > > "Message to the Tricontinental", published by the Executive Secretariat of OSPAAAL, Havana, 16 April 1967; English text as transcribed by the Workers' Web Pamphlet Project (marxists.org). The Spanish text on the same archive reads "por medio de la lucha" ("by means of the struggle") in this clause, without the word "armed". [source](https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm) — In the archive: [The peoples of three continents: OSPAAAL, a Havana secretariat, and Tricontinental](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-ospaaal-tricontinental/) - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: [source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Osvaldo_D%C3%B3rticos_(cropped).jpg), a 1960 photograph from the Brazilian National Archives (Agência Nacional) tagged with that archive's public-domain template, not used because the template's legal basis was not verified. — Osvaldo Dorticós — President of the Republic · 1959 to 1976 — Osvaldo Dorticós: Read more — Lawyer who became President of the Republic on 18 July 1959, when Manuel Urrutia resigned, and held the office, beside Prime Minister Castro, until the 1976 constitution replaced it with the Council of State; he welcomed the delegates to the Tricontinental Conference on 3 January 1966. — In the archive: [The peoples of three continents: OSPAAAL, a Havana secretariat, and Tricontinental](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-ospaaal-tricontinental/) - ![Armando Hart in a dark jacket and dark-rimmed glasses, seated, at the Sixth Congress of the SED in Berlin, 15 January 1963](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/castro-cuba/armando-hart.jpg) — [Photo](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Armando_Hart.jpg): Peter Heinz Junge, CC BY-SA 3.0 de — Armando Hart — Minister of Education; Minister of Culture · 1959 to 1997 — Armando Hart: Read more — Minister of Education from 1959 to 1965, the years of the 1961 literacy campaign, and Minister of Culture from 1976 to 1997; he was in the Cuban delegation's daily directing group at the Tricontinental Conference of January 1966. — In the archive: [¡Venceremos!: Cuba's 1961 literacy campaign, the primer, and the year-end declaration](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-literacy-campaign-1961/), [The peoples of three continents: OSPAAAL, a Havana secretariat, and Tricontinental](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-ospaaal-tricontinental/) - ![Miguel Díaz-Canel seated in profile before a Cuban flag, 2 November 2018](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/castro-cuba/miguel-diaz-canel.jpg) — [Photo](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miguel_D%C3%ADaz-Canel_(2018-11-02).jpg): Presidential Press and Information Office of Russia (kremlin.ru), CC BY 4.0 — Miguel Díaz-Canel — President of the Republic; First Secretary of the Communist Party · 2018 to present — Miguel Díaz-Canel: Read more — Engineer and party official, First Vice-President of the Councils of State and of Ministers from 2013; became head of state and government on 19 April 2018, President of the Republic under the 2019 constitution from 10 October 2019 (re-elected on 19 April 2023) and First Secretary on 19 April 2021. — In the archive: [Cuba's crisis years: Mariel, the Special Period, the Malecón, and 11 July](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-crisis-years/) - ![Manuel Marrero Cruz smiling, in a dark suit with a Cuban flag behind him, 28 September 2022](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/castro-cuba/manuel-marrero-cruz.jpg) — [Photo](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Manuel_Marrero_Cruz_before_the_funeral_of_Shinzo_Abe.jpg): Cabinet Public Relations Office, Government of Japan, CC BY 4.0 — Manuel Marrero Cruz — Prime Minister · 2019 to present — Manuel Marrero Cruz: Read more — Appointed to the Prime Minister's post, restored by the 2019 constitution, on 21 December 2019, the first holder since 1976; he heads the Council of Ministers beside President Díaz-Canel. ### Media, film and solidarity - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: [source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ricardo_Masetti.jpg), tagged public domain on Commons but taken from an Argentine magazine (Cristianismo y Revolución, before 1968) with no verified basis, so not used. — Jorge Ricardo Masetti — Founding director of Prensa Latina · 1959 to 1961 — Jorge Ricardo Masetti: Read more — Argentine journalist who took part in Operación Verdad in January 1959 and was the first director of Prensa Latina, whose first dispatch went out on 16 June 1959; his work at the agency ended around the time of the Bay of Pigs in 1961, and after 21 April 1964 he was not heard from again, having gone to lead a guerrilla group in Argentina. — In the archive: [Órgano oficial del Comité Central: Cuba's standing media apparatus after 1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-state-media-apparatus/) - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: none; a Commons search for the name on 2 October 2026 returned no photograph of him. — Alfredo Guevara — Founding president of ICAIC · 1959 to the early 1980s — Alfredo Guevara: Read more — Film-maker who headed the Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry from its creation on 24 March 1959 until the early 1980s and again from 1991; ICAIC produced the weekly Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano and the film posters of the period. — In the archive: [Órgano oficial del Comité Central: Cuba's standing media apparatus after 1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-state-media-apparatus/) - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: none; a Commons search for the name on 2 October 2026 returned no photograph of him. — Santiago Álvarez — Director of the Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano · 1960 to 1990 — Santiago Álvarez: Read more — Directed the weekly newsreel of ICAIC from its first issue in June 1960 to July 1990, though the first issue named Alfredo Guevara as director; the newsreel carried the government's account of Cuba and of Latin American movements to cinema audiences. — In the archive: [Órgano oficial del Comité Central: Cuba's standing media apparatus after 1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-state-media-apparatus/) - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: none; a Commons search for the name on 2 October 2026 returned no photograph of him. — Osmany Cienfuegos — Secretary General of OSPAAAL · 1966 to 1980 — Osmany Cienfuegos: Read more — Named secretary general of the Havana-based Organization of Solidarity of the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America by the party's Political Bureau, as Fidel Castro announced on 15 January 1966, and held the post until 1980; OSPAAAL published the magazine Tricontinental and its folded posters. — In the archive: [The peoples of three continents: OSPAAAL, a Havana secretariat, and Tricontinental](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-ospaaal-tricontinental/) ### United States broadcasting to Cuba - No public-domain or openly licensed portrait found. Nearest: [source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MasClinton.jpg), tagged CC BY-SA 4.0 as the uploader's own work, not used because the file description does not identify the photographer or the occasion. — Jorge Mas Canosa — Chairman, Presidential Advisory Board for Radio Broadcasting to Cuba · 1984 to 1990s — Jorge Mas Canosa: Read more — Cuban-American businessman and founder of the Cuban American National Foundation, confirmed on 8 August 1984 as chairman of the presidential advisory board for Radio Martí and still its chairman in 1994, according to the Congressional Research Service; he died in 1997. — In the archive: [The Cuba-United States radio war: Radio Swan's cover story and Havana's 'gusanos'](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-us-radio-war/) ## Background and rise to power Cuba was a Spanish colony until 1898, was occupied by the United States until 1902 and was nominally independent from then; under the Platt Amendment of 1901, written into the 1901 constitution and in force until 1934, the United States kept a right to intervene (Pérez). General Fulgencio Batista, who had led the army-backed "revolt of the sergeants" in 1933, took power again by a coup on 10 March 1952 and suspended the elections. On 26 July 1953 Fidel Castro, a lawyer, led an attack on the Moncada barracks in Santiago de Cuba; he was tried and, in his defence speech, which he later reconstructed in writing as *La historia me absolverá* ("History will absolve me"), set out the programme of what became the 26th of July Movement. He was released under an amnesty in May 1955, went to Mexico, and landed from the yacht *Granma* on 2 December 1956 with 81 others. The rebels set up a radio station in the Sierra Maestra, Radio Rebelde, which first went on the air on 24 February 1958 and was set up under Ernesto "Che" Guevara (the movement and Batista's press). Batista left Cuba on 1 January 1959 and Castro's column entered Havana on 8 January (Thomas). ![Fidel Castro in olive-green uniform and cap walking among bearded men in uniform and men in suits, one of them speaking toward the camera, in Washington in 1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/images/cuba-26-july-rise-castro-washington-1959.jpg) Fidel Castro, prime minister since 16 February 1959, walking with his party during his visit to Washington in 1959, a few months after the government took office. Photograph by the US Department of State. [Source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fidel_Castro_during_a_visit_to_Washington.jpg): U.S. Department of State, Office of Security, Public domain (U.S. government work, Department of State). The first government of 1959 was headed by President Manuel Urrutia, with José Miró Cardona as prime minister. Miró Cardona resigned on 13 February and Castro became prime minister on 16 February 1959; Urrutia resigned on 17 July and Osvaldo Dorticós became President of the Republic the next day. The government promulgated an Agrarian Reform law on 17 May 1959 and tried former Batista officials before revolutionary tribunals; estimates of the number executed in 1959 differ by source (Thomas). From 1960 it nationalised foreign-owned and then domestic enterprises, and the United States restricted trade and, on 3 January 1961, broke diplomatic relations. A force of Cuban exiles trained and supported by the US Central Intelligence Agency landed at the Bay of Pigs on 17 April 1961 and was defeated within three days (Playa Girón). Castro had declared the revolution socialist on 16 April and said on 2 December 1961 that he was a Marxist-Leninist. From November 1961 the Kennedy administration ran Operation Mongoose, a covert programme to help Cubans overthrow the government, and the Senate's Church Committee reported in 1975 "concrete evidence of at least eight plots" against Castro's life between 1960 and 1965; the Cuban government cites such aggression as the reason for its security and information policy (the radio war). In February 1962 the United States extended its restrictions into a general embargo, and the missile crisis of October 1962 followed. The embargo, in modified form, remains in force as of this page's date. ## How power was organized The government governed first by decree. The 26th of July Movement, the old Popular Socialist Party and the Revolutionary Directorate were merged into the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations in 1961, then the United Party of the Socialist Revolution in 1962, and on 3 October 1965 into the Communist Party of Cuba, with Fidel Castro as First Secretary and Raúl Castro as Second Secretary. The party held its first congress in December 1975. A constitution approved by referendum on 15 February 1976 (about 97.7 per cent in favour, on a reported 98 per cent turnout) came into force on 24 February 1976. Its Article 5 made the party the leading force of society and the State, and it set up the National Assembly of People's Power and a Council of State, and from 2 December 1976 Fidel Castro was President of the Council of State and of the Council of Ministers, which made him head of state and government. [![Committee for the Defense of the Revolution, Zona 18, Old Havana: doorway, 2012](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/images/cuba-cdr-old-havana-committee-doorway-2012.jpg)](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/cuba-cdr-old-havana-committee-doorway-2012/) [Committee for the Defense of the Revolution, Zona 18, Old Havana: doorway, 2012](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/cuba-cdr-old-havana-committee-doorway-2012/), March 30, 2012. From the collection. The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, announced on 28 September 1960, as they appear at the level of a block in Old Havana in 2012. ![Chart of Cuban state power as of 2 October 2026: President and First Secretary Miguel Díaz-Canel at the centre, with Raúl Castro and the constitutional basis beside him, over columns for the party, the state, security, the media and United States broadcasting.](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/diagrams/castro-cuba-power-structure.png) Power structure of the Cuban state as of 2 October 2026, simplified from the sources cited on this page. Source: FRAME diagram. Portraits, cropped to thumbnails: Warren K. Leffler, U.S. News & World Report Magazine Photograph Collection, Library of Congress, via Wikimedia Commons; Photo: Cabinet Public Relations Office, Government of Japan, CC BY 4.0, 28 September 2022; Photo: kremlin.ru, CC BY 4.0, 2 November 2018; Photo: government.ru, CC BY 4.0, 11 July 2012, CC BY 4.0 (FRAME archive content); portraits: CC BY 4.0; Public domain (U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, Library of Congress; copyright dedicated to the public on donation; Commons tag). Mass organisations sit beside the party. The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR) were announced by Castro on 28 September 1960 as a "system of collective revolutionary vigilance" on each block (the committees); the Federation of Cuban Women; the Union of Young Communists (UJC), which took that name on 4 April 1962 (youth and schools); the trade-union confederation, the farmers' association and the university students' federation complete the list that the 1976 and 2019 constitutions call "organizaciones de masas y sociales". The Interior Ministry (MININT) runs the police and State Security. The criminal code's provisions on "social dangerousness" allow measures before an offence is committed; Human Rights Watch has documented their use against political opponents, and the Cuban government's position is that those prosecuted act for a foreign power (Human Rights Watch 2009). In March 2003 75 dissidents and independent journalists were arrested and, in April, sentenced to terms of 6 to 28 years on charges of collaborating with US diplomats, and on 11 April 2003 three men were executed after a summary trial for hijacking a ferry (Human Rights Watch 2003 and 2004). Mass departures took place in 1980 (Mariel) and 1994, and after the end of Soviet subsidies in 1989 to 1991 the state declared a "special period" of shortages (the crisis years). The leadership changed within the same institutions. Castro handed his duties provisionally to Raúl Castro on 31 July 2006 after surgery; the National Assembly elected Raúl President of the Councils of State and of Ministers on 24 February 2008; the Sixth Party Congress of 16 to 19 April 2011 chose him as First Secretary. A new constitution was approved by referendum on 24 February 2019, with 6,816,169 of the 7,848,343 votes cast in favour, and proclaimed on 10 April 2019. Its Article 5 calls the party "único, martiano, fidelista, marxista y leninista" and "la fuerza dirigente superior de la sociedad y del Estado", it restored a President of the Republic (limited to two five-year terms) and created a Prime Minister, and its Article 55 says the fundamental media "son de propiedad socialista de todo el pueblo o de las organizaciones políticas, sociales y de masas; y no pueden ser objeto de otro tipo de propiedad". ![Illustration: a vintage television control room with monitor banks, camera cables and cue sheets.](https://propagandaarchive.org/static/generated/graphics/tv-control-room.jpg) Illustration, not an archive object ## The propaganda apparatus *Cuba.* The state replaced a competitive press and private radio and television chains with institutions that speak in its own name. Prensa Latina, a news agency promoted by Che Guevara and first directed by the Argentine journalist Jorge Ricardo Masetti, sent its first dispatch on 16 June 1959; the independent dailies were closed or taken over in 1960, including *Diario de la Marina* in May; the largest private broadcaster, CMQ, passed to the state in autumn 1960; Radio Habana Cuba, the shortwave service, was inaugurated on 1 May 1961 in seven languages today; a single broadcasting institute was created by Law 1030 on 24 May 1962 (later the ICRT, and from August 2021 the Instituto de Información y Comunicación Social); and the Communist Party's daily *Granma*, formed from the two papers *Revolución* and *Hoy*, first appeared on 4 October 1965 with the masthead "Órgano Oficial del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Cuba" (the standing apparatus). The 1976 text recognised freedom of speech and the press "conforme a los fines de la sociedad socialista" and made the press, radio, television and cinema state or social property; the 2019 text and the Social Communication Law (Law 162, passed on 25 May 2023, in force from 4 October 2024) keep the ownership rule for the fundamental media. Speeches by Castro, often two to four hours long, were printed in full and broadcast as the day's text (Lockwood). Official Cuban sources describe this system as the means by which a blockaded country answers a foreign information monopoly; Freedom House and the Committee to Protect Journalists criticise it as state control of the media. [!["Señores imperialistas, ¡no les tenemos absolutamente ningún miedo!": Havana billboard, 2002](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/images/senores-imperialistas-ningun-miedo-havana-billboard-2002.jpg)](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/senores-imperialistas-ningun-miedo-havana-billboard-2002/) ["Señores imperialistas, ¡no les tenemos absolutamente ningún miedo!": Havana billboard, 2002](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/senores-imperialistas-ningun-miedo-havana-billboard-2002/), 2002. From the collection. A roadside billboard of the domestic message, facing the US mission in Havana in 2002. **Content note:** Cartoon billboard caricaturing a U.S. figure in stars-and-stripes trousers beside a grinning armed fighter. This object is shown as it was published. [Why](https://propagandaarchive.org/about/#as-it-was) [![TV Martí studio set for the programme "Nuestra América", 2008](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/images/tv-marti-newscast-bbg-2008.jpg)](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/tv-marti-newscast-bbg-2008/) [TV Martí studio set for the programme "Nuestra América", 2008](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/tv-marti-newscast-bbg-2008/), July 23, 2008. From the collection. A TV Martí newscast of 2008, produced by the US Broadcasting Board of Governors for Cuban viewers. Film, art and graphics were organised the same way. The film institute ICAIC was created on 24 March 1959 under Alfredo Guevara, and from June 1960 to July 1990 its weekly newsreel, the *Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano*, was made under Santiago Álvarez. The party's Commission of Revolutionary Orientation (1962 to 1974), later the Department of Revolutionary Orientation and, from 1985, Editora Política, produced the posters and highway billboards of the domestic message (the billboard of 2002 is one example). For export, the Organization of Solidarity of the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America (OSPAAAL), created at the Tricontinental Conference in Havana on 3 to 15 January 1966 with a secretary general named by the Cuban party, published the magazine *Tricontinental* with a folded poster in most issues, in Spanish, English, French and later Arabic; Natália Schmiedecke counts about 300 different posters by 1990, and the Cuban government announced OSPAAAL's closure on 11 June 2019 (OSPAAAL). The image of Che Guevara known as *Guerrillero Heroico*, taken by Alberto Korda on 5 March 1960 at a funeral for victims of the *La Coubre* explosion and widely published after Guevara's death on 9 October 1967, became the best-known of these exported icons; it is not hosted here because the photograph is not under a free licence. Slogans such as "Patria o Muerte" (5 March 1960) and "Socialismo o Muerte" (closing a speech of 28 January 1990), and labels for opponents and emigrants such as "gusanos" ("worms"), belong to the same message system and are documented in the Cuba and United States radio war and in the crisis-years study (Mariel and 11 July). The internet is run by the state telecommunications company ETECSA; on 11 July 2021 and the days after, NetBlocks measured restrictions on WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram and some other services, and Decree-Law 35 and Resolution 105 of 17 August 2021 set the telecommunications rules that Human Rights Watch criticised. *The United States.* The same definitions apply to broadcasting aimed at Cuba. From 17 May 1960 the CIA ran Radio Swan from Great Swan Island under a commercial cover; an internal "Brief History of Radio Swan" says it was first planned as clandestine and was "commercial" at the Navy's request (the memo). Radio Martí, authorised by the Radio Broadcasting to Cuba Act (Public Law 98-111, signed 4 October 1983) and named for José Martí, began on 20 May 1985 under the United States Information Agency; TV Martí began test transmissions on 27 March 1990 from a balloon over Cudjoe Key, Florida. Both are funded by Congress and identified as United States government broadcasts, which separates them from Radio Swan's concealed sponsor (TV Martí newscast, 2008). Cuba has jammed them since the start, and official Cuban media call them "transmisiones ilegales" ("illegal transmissions") and "guerra radioelectrónica" ("radio-electronic war"; EcuRed); the Congressional Research Service and the Government Accountability Office record that jamming limited TV Martí's audience, and the GAO reported in December 2011 that the Broadcasting Board of Governors could not produce reliable audience data and that telephone surveys showed under 2 per cent of Cuban adults with landlines reached. In May 1992 the GAO found that two of three consultants said Cuba-related broadcasts "lacked balance and did not meet established Voice of America standards"; the State Department Inspector General inspected the Office of Cuba Broadcasting in 2007 and, in a targeted inspection of the agency published in December 2020, found it had not communicated its journalistic standards effectively to staff and outside audiences; and an independent assessment that the agency ordered in October 2018, after a Radio and TV Martí segment that included antisemitic remarks about George Soros, and published on 21 May 2019, found that "almost any criticism" of the Cuban government was allowed, with "little or no attempt to obtain a response or provide balancing information". The Office of Cuba Broadcasting, in Miami, states its mission as "to promote freedom and democracy by providing the people of Cuba with objective news and information programming" and gives its audience as 3.2 million and its budget as $12.97 million; neither figure has been independently verified here (usagm.gov). The 2025 to 2026 changes are in the section on current status. ## Timeline - 26 July 1953: attack on the Moncada barracks; 2 December 1956: the *Granma* landing; 24 February 1958: Radio Rebelde's first broadcast. - 1 January 1959: Batista leaves Cuba; 16 February: Fidel Castro becomes prime minister; 24 March: ICAIC is created; 16 June: Prensa Latina's first dispatch. - 17 May 1960: Radio Swan goes on the air; 28 September: Castro announces the CDR; May to autumn 1960: the independent dailies and CMQ pass to the state. - 3 January 1961: the United States breaks relations; 17 to 19 April: the Bay of Pigs; 1 May: Radio Habana Cuba; 30 June: Castro's "Palabras a los intelectuales". - 3 October 1965: the Communist Party of Cuba is founded and *Granma* is formed; 3 to 15 January 1966: the Tricontinental Conference creates OSPAAAL. - 24 February 1976: the socialist constitution; 2 December 1976: Castro becomes President of the Council of State. - 20 May 1985: Radio Martí begins; 28 January 1990: Castro announces the "special period"; 27 March 1990: TV Martí's first test. - 31 July 2006: Castro provisionally hands power to Raúl Castro; 24 February 2008: Raúl Castro becomes president; 16 to 19 April 2011: First Secretary. - 25 November 2016: Fidel Castro dies; 19 April 2018: Miguel Díaz-Canel becomes President of the Councils of State and of Ministers; 24 February and 10 April 2019: the new constitution; 10 October 2019: he is elected President of the Republic; 21 December 2019: Manuel Marrero Cruz becomes Prime Minister. - 19 April 2021: Díaz-Canel becomes First Secretary; 11 July 2021: nationwide protests and restrictions on internet services. - 14 March 2025: a US executive order directs reductions at the agency that runs Radio and TV Martí; 26 March: Radio Martí returns to the air; 7 March 2026: a federal court rules that the agency's acting head was not lawfully in office. [!["Brief History of Radio Swan": annex to a 1961 memorandum](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/images/radio-swan-brief-history-memo-1961.jpg)](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/radio-swan-brief-history-memo-1961/) ["Brief History of Radio Swan": annex to a 1961 memorandum](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/radio-swan-brief-history-memo-1961/), 1961. From the collection. A page of the internal history of Radio Swan, the CIA station that began broadcasting to Cuba on 17 May 1960 under a commercial cover. [!["Noticiero Martí Noticias": title card of the newscast of 10 June 2026](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/images/noticiero-marti-noticias-title-card-2026.jpg)](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/noticiero-marti-noticias-title-card-2026/) ["Noticiero Martí Noticias": title card of the newscast of 10 June 2026](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/noticiero-marti-noticias-title-card-2026/), June 10, 2026. From the collection. The title card of a Martí Noticias newscast published on 10 June 2026, the most recent dated broadcast found for this page. ![Timeline of eleven dated steps from the 1959 government to the 2021 change of party leader.](https://propagandaarchive.org/regimes/images/diagrams/castro-cuba-timeline.png) Eleven dated steps in Cuba's government and media, simplified from the sources cited on this page. Source: FRAME diagram, drawn from the sources listed on this page, CC BY 4.0 (FRAME archive content). ## Current status (as of October 2, 2026) ![Illustration: a vintage broadcast microphone beside torn script pages.](https://propagandaarchive.org/static/generated/graphics/spot-microphone.jpg) Illustration, not an archive object This regime has not ended. The same party, constitution and state institutions govern Cuba as of 2 October 2026, and the leadership has changed through the following steps. On 31 July 2006 Fidel Castro handed his duties to Raúl Castro; the National Assembly elected Raúl Castro President on 24 February 2008 and the Sixth Congress made him First Secretary in April 2011. Fidel Castro died on 25 November 2016. On 19 April 2018 the National Assembly elected Miguel Díaz-Canel, who had been First Vice-President since 2013, to succeed Raúl Castro as head of state and government. The 2019 constitution restored the posts of President of the Republic and Prime Minister, and the Assembly elected Díaz-Canel President on 10 October 2019 and re-elected him on 19 April 2023 for a term to 2028. Manuel Marrero Cruz has been Prime Minister since 21 December 2019. At the Eighth Party Congress Raúl Castro stepped down as First Secretary and the Central Committee elected Díaz-Canel on 19 April 2021. As of 2 October 2026 Díaz-Canel holds both posts and Marrero Cruz the premiership; Raúl Castro, born in 1931, holds none. In December 2025 the Central Committee postponed the Ninth Party Congress, which had been planned for April 2026, after a letter from Raúl Castro (Hürriyet Daily News). In 2026 relations with the United States and Cuba's fuel supply changed sharply. On 29 January 2026 the United States issued Executive Order 14380, declaring a national emergency with respect to Cuba and authorising tariffs on countries that supply it with oil; in April 2026 Díaz-Canel told NBC News that "stepping down is not part of our vocabulary" and that talks with the United States were under way. The page does not adopt either government's account of the cause of the shortages and blackouts of 2024 to 2026. *US broadcasting to Cuba, with dates.* On 14 March 2025 an executive order directed reductions at the US Agency for Global Media (USAGM), and employees of the Office of Cuba Broadcasting were placed on administrative leave; on 26 March 2025 they were told to return and Radio Martí announced that it was back on the air. On 1 April 2025 *14ymedio* reported that Radio Martí's shortwave transmitters in North Carolina were off for lack of contract technicians. On 6 May 2025 the agency's senior adviser, Kari Lake, announced a free newsfeed partnership with One America News Network for USAGM networks including the Office of Cuba Broadcasting and Radio Martí. On 7 March 2026 Judge Royce Lamberth of the US District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that Lake had no authority to act as acting chief executive and voided her actions, including layoffs; she said the administration would appeal. As of 2 October 2026 this page found no published decision closing the Office of Cuba Broadcasting: its page on usagm.gov remained online and *Martí Noticias* published a newscast on 10 June 2026 (title card). The status of the Office's funding and of any appeal was not confirmed by a primary source for this page and is unsettled. ## Same-standard note This page uses the same structure and definitions as every other regime page, including those of the United States: a technique is listed only where the archive's working definition and a documented example fit, and offices and dates are stated without judging the people who held them. Here that means the same terms for a state that owns its fundamental media and a state that funds a broadcaster aimed at another country's audience: both outputs are state-funded and written to move opinion, and each is open about its sponsor today. The scale and context differ: Cuba's is a one-party state with a constitutional ownership rule for its fundamental media, which are its country's only national media, while the Office of Cuba Broadcasting is one federal agency, with a stated budget of about $13 million, producing a service for listeners abroad. Radio Swan in 1960 hid its sponsor, which Radio Martí since 1985 has not, and the page records that difference as it records Cuba's jamming and the audits of Radio and TV Martí. Other regime pages record other systems, each with its own scale, intent and context, and nothing here ranks them. ## Sources - Fidel Castro, speech of 28 September 1960 (stenographic version), [Cubadebate](http://www.cubadebate.cu/especiales/2025/09/28/fidel-el-arte-de-la-palabra-vamos-a-establecer-un-sistema-de-vigilancia-revolucionaria-colectiva/); speech of 30 June 1961, "Palabras a los intelectuales", [official text](http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/1961/esp/f300661e.html); Raúl Castro, [Central Report to the Sixth Party Congress](http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/rauldiscursos/2011/esp/r160411e.html), 16 April 2011. - Ernesto Guevara, ["Message to the Tricontinental"](https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm), OSPAAAL, 16 April 1967. - Constitution of Cuba, 1976, as amended to 2002 ([Constitute Project](https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cuba_2002)), and Constitution of 2019, Articles 5 and 55 ([Constitute Project](https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cuba_2019)); Granma, ["Special coverage: the Cuban people vote in constitutional referendum"](https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2019-02-24/special-coverage-the-cuban-people-vote-in-constitutional-referendum), 24 February 2019 (the 2019 vote count); Ley 162 de 2023, "De Comunicación Social", [Gaceta Oficial](https://www.gacetaoficial.gob.cu/es/ley-162-de-2023-de-asamblea-nacional-del-poder-popular). - Dieter Nohlen (ed.), *Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook*, vol. 1 (Oxford University Press, 2005), on the referendum of 15 February 1976. - Church Committee, [interim report on alleged assassination plots involving foreign leaders](https://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/contents/church/contents_church_reports_ir.htm), 20 November 1975; [Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol. X, doc. 399](https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d399) (Operation Mongoose). - Louis A. Pérez Jr., *Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution* (Oxford University Press, 4th ed., 2011); Hugh Thomas, *Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom* (1971); Lee Lockwood, ["'This Shame Will Be Welcome…': A Speech by Fidel Castro"](https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1970/09/24/this-shame-will-be-welcome-a-speech-by-fidel-castr/), *New York Review of Books*, 24 September 1970. - Salvador Salazar Navarro, ["The state control of the Cuban printed press (1959-1965)"](https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v2025.8957), *Comunicación y Sociedad* (2025); Prensa Latina, ["Prensa Latina, 64 years at the service of the truth"](https://www.plenglish.com/news/2023/06/16/prensa-latina-64-years-at-the-service-of-the-truth/), 16 June 2023; Radio Habana Cuba, ["About Us"](https://www.radiohc.cu/en/about-us/); Radio Rebelde, ["Nuestra Historia"](https://www.radiorebelde.cu/quienes-somos/); *Granma*, ["¿Quiénes somos?"](https://www.granma.cu/quienes-somos); Instituto de Información y Comunicación Social, ["Sobre el Instituto"](https://www.ics.gob.cu/sobre-el-instituto/); ["El Noticiero ICAIC, América Latina en el cine de Santiago Álvarez"](https://lljournal.commons.gc.cuny.edu/salazar-navarro/), *Latin Lines Journal*. - Patricia Calvo González, ["Dirigir, mediar, proponer"](https://doi.org/10.6035/tiemposamrica.9578), *Tiempos de América* 24 (2026); Natália Schmiedecke, "Oppressed, Resistant, and Revolutionary: The Third World as Designed in the OSPAAAL Graphic Art", *Antíteses* 16, no. 31 (2023); Eugenia Palieraki and Fernando Camacho Padilla, "Hasta Siempre, OSPAAAL!", *NACLA Report on the Americas* (2019); Josh MacPhee, ["Constructing Third World Struggle"](https://thefunambulist.net/magazine/22-publishing-struggle/constructing-third-world-struggle-design-ospaaal-tricontinental-josh-macphee), *The Funambulist* 22 (2019). - Human Rights Watch, [*New Castro, Same Cuba*](https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/11/19/new-castro-same-cuba/political-prisoners-post-fidel-era) (2009); [Cuba: Executions of Three Alleged Hijackers](https://www.hrw.org/legacy/press/2003/04/cuba041203.htm), 11 April 2003; [Cuba: One Year After the Crackdown](https://www.hrw.org/news/2004/03/17/cuba-one-year-after-crackdown), 17 March 2004; ["Cuba: Peaceful Protesters Systematically Detained, Abused"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/19/cuba-peaceful-protesters-systematically-detained-abused), 19 October 2021; ["Cuba: Telecommunications Decree Curtails Free Speech"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/25/cuba-telecommunications-decree-curtails-free-speech), 25 August 2021; NetBlocks, ["Social media restricted in Cuba amid widening anti-government protests"](https://netblocks.org/reports/social-media-restricted-in-cuba-amid-widening-anti-government-protests-QAdrmwyl), 12 July 2021; Freedom House, [Freedom in the World 2025: Cuba](https://freedomhouse.org/country/cuba/freedom-world/2025); Committee to Protect Journalists, [statement on Cuban state media control](https://cpj.org/es/2026/08/cpj-insta-al-gobierno-cubano-a-liberar-los-medios-de-comunicacion-del-control-estatal/amp/), August 2026. - EcuRed, ["Guerra radioelectrónica contra Cuba"](https://www.ecured.cu/Guerra_radioelectr%C3%B3nica_contra_Cuba) (a Cuban state-affiliated encyclopedia, cited for the Cuban government's own description of the broadcasts). - Public Law 98-111 (Radio Broadcasting to Cuba Act), 4 October 1983; Congressional Research Service, [*Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: Background and Issues Through 1994*](https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/RL/PDF/94-636/94-636.2.pdf); U.S. Government Accountability Office, [GAO-12-243R](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-12-243r) (13 December 2011) and [GAO-09-758T](https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-09-758t); State Department Office of Inspector General, [*Report of Inspection: Office of Cuba Broadcasting*, ISP-IB-07-35](https://www.stateoig.gov/uploads/report/report_pdf_file/isp-ib-07-35_1.pdf) (June 2007) and [targeted inspection of the U.S. Agency for Global Media: journalistic standards and principles](https://www.stateoig.gov/recommendation/isp-ib-21-06-03) (December 2020); USAGM, [*Embarking on Reform of the Office of Cuba Broadcasting*](https://www.usagm.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Embarking-on-OCB-Reform-English.pdf) (21 May 2019) and [Office of Cuba Broadcasting](https://www.usagm.gov/networks/ocb/); USAGM, ["Martís' broadcasting to Cuba marks 35 years"](https://www.usagm.gov/2020/05/20/martis-broadcasting-to-cuba-marks-35-years/), 20 May 2020; Voice of America, ["Audit: US Broadcasting to Cuba Rife With Bad Journalism, Ineffective Propaganda"](https://www.voanews.com/a/audit-us-broadcasting-to-cuba-rife-with-bad-journalism-ineffective-propaganda/4926999.html), 2019. - Executive Order 14380, ["Addressing Threats to the United States by the Government of Cuba"](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/02/03/2026-02250/addressing-threats-to-the-united-states-by-the-government-of-cuba), Federal Register, 3 February 2026; NBC News, ["Cuba's president says he's 'not stepping down'"](https://www.nbcnews.com/world/cuba/cubas-president-says-not-stepping-down-rcna267456), April 2026; [Hürriyet Daily News](https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/cubas-communist-party-postpones-congress-citing-economic-crisis-216821), on the postponed Ninth Congress. - US Agency for Global Media in 2025 and 2026: [WSVN, 15 March 2025](https://wsvn.com/news/politics/trump-signs-executive-order-shutting-down-radio-and-tv-marti-employees-placed-on-administrative-leave/) and [AOL/Miami Herald, 26 March 2025](https://www.aol.com/radio-mart-resumes-broadcasting-cuba-202626379.html) (leave and return); [14ymedio, 1 April 2025](https://www.14ymedio.com/cuba/tecnicos-reactivar-transmisores-onda-corta_1_1112636.html) (shortwave); [Kari Lake, 6 May 2025](https://x.com/KariLake/status/1919946331818205610) (OAN newsfeed); [NPR, 8 March 2026](https://www.npr.org/2026/03/08/nx-s1-5741594/u-s-judge-kari-lake-broke-law-voice-of-america) and [Radio Ink, 11 March 2026](https://radioink.com/2026/03/11/kari-lakes-usagm-tenure-was-unlawful-federal-judge-rules/) (the ruling). - Heads of office: [Prime Minister Manuel Marrero Cruz appointed, CNN, 21 December 2019](https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/21/americas/cuba-appoints-prime-minister); [Al Jazeera, 19 April 2021](https://aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/19/cuba-has-a-new-leader-and-its-not-a-castro) (Díaz-Canel as First Secretary). ## In the archive ### Collection objects (4) - [FBIS Daily Report: Castro's May Day speech on the Peruvian embassy exodus ('lumpens', 'scum')](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/castro-may-day-lumpen-scum-fbis-1980/) (Cuba · May 1, 1980 · Name-calling, Scapegoating). Content note: Contains a head of state's speech labelling people who sought to leave Cuba 'lumpens', 'thugs', 'delinquents' and 'scum', with the crowd chanting 'scum'. - [FBIS Daily Report: Havana International Service lines up foreign voices against Radio Marti](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/havana-radio-marti-reaction-fbis-1985/) (Cuba · May 20, 1985 · Testimonial, Name-calling) - ["Señores imperialistas, ¡no les tenemos absolutamente ningún miedo!": Havana billboard, 2002](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/senores-imperialistas-ningun-miedo-havana-billboard-2002/) (Cuba · 2002 · Name-calling). Content note: Cartoon billboard caricaturing a U.S. figure in stars-and-stripes trousers beside a grinning armed fighter. - [Committee for the Defense of the Revolution, Zona 18, Old Havana: doorway, 2012](https://propagandaarchive.org/collection/cuba-cdr-old-havana-committee-doorway-2012/) (Cuba · Mar 30, 2012 · Identity fusion) ### Case studies - [History will absolve me: the 26th of July Movement and Batista's press, 1953–1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-26-july-rise-1953-1959/) - [Órgano oficial del Comité Central: Cuba's standing media apparatus after 1959](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-state-media-apparatus/) - [A committee on every block: Cuba's Committees for the Defense of the Revolution](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-cdr/) - [The peoples of three continents: OSPAAAL, a Havana secretariat, and Tricontinental](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-ospaaal-tricontinental/) - [The Cuba-United States radio war: Radio Swan's cover story and Havana's 'gusanos'](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-us-radio-war/) - [Cuba's crisis years: Mariel, the Special Period, the Malecón, and 11 July](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-crisis-years/) - [Playa Girón and the Bay of Pigs: mercenaries in one telling, Cuban patriots in the other](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-playa-giron/) - [¡Venceremos!: Cuba's 1961 literacy campaign, the primer, and the year-end declaration](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-literacy-campaign-1961/) - [Pioneros por el comunismo: Cuba's youth ladder, the single textbook, and the reply that uses the same devices](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cuba-youth-and-schools/) - [Cold War radio jamming (1948 to 1988)](https://propagandaarchive.org/case-studies/cold-war-radio-jamming/)